Psycho-linguistic and educational challenges in Teaching Chinese … – BMC Psychology

Informants

For this study, we sought a group of teachers. At the outset of the research, the specific sample size had not been predetermined. Consequently, we initially identified and nominated 20 teachers from various countries, using a theoretical sampling approach. The interview process continued until data saturation was achieved. Data saturation was reached after conducting interviews with the 15th teacher. Therefore, the final sample consisted of 15 teachers. These teachers were specifically chosen from universities where Mandarin is taught as a foreign language, with a focus on institutions in the United Kingdom, Russia, and Australia.

All teachers were non-native speakers of the Mandarin language, having commenced their Chinese/Mandarin language learning after reaching the age of puberty, either within China or in their respective home countries. Furthermore, all informants were thoroughly briefed on the objectives of the study and provided their informed consent by signing the required documentation. A comprehensive breakdown of the demographic information of the teacher participants can be found in Table 1.

Research method

In accordance with the objectives, we employed a phenomenological research approach, which delves deeply into the lived experiences of individuals impacted by a specific phenomenon. Phenomenology is commonly employed in research when there is limited or no existing knowledge in the field [31]. Participation in the study was entirely voluntary, and a comprehensive explanation of the study’s procedures was provided to all participants [32].

Among the various data collection methods suitable for qualitative research, we opted for interviews, which included individual face-to-face sessions, phone conversations, and online interactions [31]. Due to the impact of the pandemic and the geographical distances between the participants and ourselves, electronic interviews were conducted in two formats: online and offline (via emails). Participants were given the choice to respond in either English or Mandarin.

Participants were asked to elaborate on the primary challenges they encountered while teaching or learning the Mandarin language, including linguistic, psychological, and pedagogical obstacles. Prior to transcription, the researchers thoroughly reviewed and listened to each interview. The recordings were then replayed to transcribe participants’ statements verbatim. Given the informal nature of the interviews, the aim was to accurately capture colloquial expressions and phrases used by the participants. Transcriptions were conducted on a daily basis, meaning that after each interview session, the researcher transcribed the participants’ remarks. On average, each interview lasted approximately 30 min, with the overall duration of discussions ranging between 20 and 70 min. Typically, the researcher could conduct one or two interviews in a single day, with the remaining time dedicated to transcription.

Data analysis

The data analysis for this study was conducted using MAXQDA software (Version 2022), in accordance with the recommendations of Creswell (2014). The primary unit of analysis was the sentence, and the analysis focused on manifest content rather than latent content. The entire qualitative data collection, analysis, and reporting were carried out in English. In this study, an inductive approach to content analysis was chosen, as it was not guided by any pre-existing theory or framework [32]. Following the framework proposed by Gao and Zhang [34], the researcher followed a five-step process for qualitative data analysis. First, the data were meticulously cleaned to address any language errors, ambiguities, inaccuracies, or repetitions. Second, the researcher read the data multiple times and generated open codes. Third, these open codes were organized into axial codes and subthemes. Fourth, the axial codes and subthemes were further grouped into selective codes and higher-order general themes. Finally, a comprehensive report was prepared to document the entire data analysis process and its interpretation.

The frequency of generated codes, themes, and categories was reported, and the findings were visually presented using MAXMAP properties within MAXQDA. To ensure the credibility of the analytical process, 20% of the generated codes were randomly selected for a second round of coding. This second coding was performed by a university lecturer in applied linguistics, who possessed extensive knowledge and experience in qualitative research studies. In total, 100 codes were created for this study, with 20 of them subjected to the second coder’s review. Following the coding process, there was a single disagreement between the two coders. The inter-coder agreement coefficient for this study was found to be 96%. To resolve the disagreement, both coders engaged in discussions and made the necessary modifications to finalize the qualitative data analysis process.

Findings

Thematic analysis of the interviews revealed that teachers and learners face different problems which were thematically coded as linguistic, educational, social, and psychological problems. Each main type of challenge consists of some sub-categories which are listed and explained as follows.

Psycho-linguistic challenges

The linguistic challenges and problems that teachers and learners of the Mandarin language experience are sub-categorized into different categories which are listed and exemplified as follows.

Tonal Complexity is a significant linguistic challenge in teaching the Chinese language. Chinese is a tonal language, which means that the meaning of a word can change depending on the tone in which it is pronounced. There are four main tones in Standard Mandarin Chinese, plus a neutral tone, making a total of five tones. Tonal complexity in teaching Chinese encompasses several aspects:

1. a.

   Pronunciation Challenges: Non-native Chinese learners often struggle with accurately producing the correct tones. Mispronouncing a word’s tone can lead to misunderstandings or even completely change the meaning of a word. This aspect of tonal complexity requires learners to develop a keen ear for pitch variations and to master the pronunciation of each tone.

2. b.

   Tonal Discrimination: Chinese learners also need to distinguish between different tones when listening to spoken Chinese. This involves being able to recognize and understand the tonal variations in words, sentences, and conversations. Tonal discrimination is crucial for effective communication in the language.

3. c.

   Tonal Variation in Dialects: It is important to note that tonal complexity can vary across different Chinese dialects. Mandarin Chinese is just one of the many Chinese dialects, and some dialects have more tones or different tonal patterns. As a result, Chinese learners may encounter additional challenges when navigating tonal variations in different dialects. The following quotation from two quotations from non-native Chinese teachers highlight the challenges of tonal complexity in teaching the Chinese language:

Teaching Chinese as a second language is a rewarding but demanding task. Tonal complexity is a major hurdle for learners. They often find it challenging to distinguish between the four main tones and the neutral tone, and this affects their ability to convey their intended meaning. As teachers, we must be patient and diligent in helping students grasp the nuances of tone in Chinese.“ (Teacher 3).

“When I started teaching Chinese, I was surprised by how much tonal complexity impacted the learning process. Many students, especially those whose native languages lack tonal distinctions, struggle to adjust. They often say that they find it difficult to hear and produce the correct tones. It’s important to create engaging activities that focus on pronunciation and train their ears to the subtle tonal differences.“ (Teacher 2).

Characters and writing

The second challenge of teaching the Chinese language was thematically called “Characters and Writing,“ encompassing the sub-themes of character recognition and calligraphy. This challenge revolves around the intricate world of Chinese characters and the art of writing them. Teacher explained that learners are tasked with mastering the intricate Chinese characters, known as Hanzì, to read and understand texts in the language. Character recognition involves understanding basic character shapes, radicals, and distinguishing between simplified and traditional characters. They also stated that beyond mere writing, Chinese calligraphy delves into the art and aesthetics of writing. It involves brush techniques, understanding the principles of balance and proportion, and can serve as a form of artistic expression. For example, teacher 6 stated, “Teaching Chinese characters and writing is a fascinating journey. It’s like unlocking a treasure trove of cultural history and artistic expression. However, it’s also a significant challenge for both native and non-native Chinese learners. The characters are intricate, and the stroke order is critical for clear writing. As a teacher, I often emphasize the beauty and artistry of Chinese calligraphy to keep my students engaged and motivated to tackle this challenge.“ Teacher, 5, similarly, stated, Character recognition and calligraphy are essential aspects of teaching Chinese. For my students, recognizing characters can be like deciphering puzzles, especially if they’re new to the language. Brushing up on the basics of stroke order and structure is key. Calligraphy, on the other hand, offers a unique way to appreciate the depth and aesthetics of Chinese culture. It’s more than just writing; it’s a form of self-expression.“

Grammar and sentence structure

In the realm of teaching the Chinese language, the challenge of grammar and sentence structure is multifaceted. This challenge can be thematically divided into three key sub-themes: Word Order Differences, Particles and Functional Words, and Verb Conjugation and Tenses. One of the core linguistic challenges in teaching Chinese centers around the distinctive word order compared to languages with a more fixed word order, such as English. Chinese primarily follows an SVO (Subject-Verb-Object) structure, but it allows flexibility in word order for emphasis and context. It also frequently employs a topic-comment structure, which is markedly different from the subject-verb-object structure common in many other languages.

In Chinese, the use of particles and functional words plays a pivotal role in sentence construction. Measure words (量词 – liàngcí) are used to quantify nouns and are specific to the type of noun. Understanding which measure word to use with various nouns is a distinctive feature of Chinese grammar. Additionally, Chinese uses aspect particles like 了 (le), 着 (zhe), and 过 (guò) to indicate the aspect of an action, and modal particles such as 吗 (ma), 呢 (ne), and 吧 (ba) to express different nuances in questions, statements, or suggestions. Mastery of these particles is crucial for coherent and nuanced communication.

Chinese verb conjugation and tenses differ significantly from languages like English or Spanish. Chinese verbs typically remain uninflected and do not change to indicate past, present, or future tenses. Instead, temporal information is conveyed through time expressions and context. The language also relies on aspectual markers, such as 了 (le) for completed actions and 正在 (zhèngzài) for ongoing actions. Modal verbs like 会 (huì), 能 (néng), and 应该 (yīnggāi) are used to indicate the ability, possibility, or necessity of an action. Understanding the absence of traditional verb tenses and mastering the use of aspectual markers and modal verbs is essential for effective Chinese language communication. For instance, teacher 8 stated, “Cultivating proficiency in the Chinese language presents a unique tapestry of linguistic challenges. From mastering the intricate dance of word order differences to navigating the subtleties of particles and functional words, and adapting to the absence of traditional verb tenses, the journey of learning Chinese grammar and sentence structure is akin to unraveling a beautifully complex puzzle, rich with cultural depth and linguistic artistry.“

Idiomatic expressions

The teaching of the Chinese language presents a profound challenge in acquainting learners with idiomatic expressions and their intricate cultural context. This challenge unfurls into three key sub-themes: Idiomatic Usage, Cultural Nuances, and Proverbs and Symbolism.

Idiomatic usage

At the core of this challenge lies the vast array of idiomatic expressions, from commonly used 成语 (chéngyǔ) to regional slang. Guiding learners on when and how to employ these expressions, along with adapting to regional variations, is a linguistic feat.

Cultural nuances

Idiomatic expressions are deeply entwined with Chinese culture. Understanding the historical, cultural, and polite context behind these expressions is essential. It involves illuminating the respect, politeness, and taboos interwoven within idiomatic language.

Proverbs and symbolism

Proverbs and symbolic expressions add an extra layer of complexity. Students must grasp the profound meaning of proverbs and interpret the symbolism in numbers, colors, and cultural allusions. These are not just linguistic elements; they are gateways to the rich tapestry of Chinese culture and wisdom. One of the teachers stated, “teaching learners to navigate idiomatic expressions in Chinese is akin to guiding them through a maze of linguistic artistry, cultural depth, and historical significance, resulting in a more profound and nuanced mastery of the language.“ (Teacher 9).

Vocabulary acquisition and expansion

This theme stands as a formidable challenge, encompassing three pivotal sub-themes: Synonyms and Homophones, Specialized Terminology, and Rapid Lexical Evolution. Chinese vocabulary is replete with synonyms and homophones, adding complexity to word choice. Educating learners on how to distinguish between these nuanced synonyms and homophones while navigating tone-based differences is paramount for precision in communication. Teachers also mentioned that learning Chinese often involves delving into specialized terminology. This entails introducing students to technical and scientific vocabulary, domain-specific jargon, and cross-cultural terminology. Empowering learners with field-relevant language is vital for effective communication in professional contexts. Teachers also suggested that the Chinese language is dynamic and constantly evolving, with new words and expressions emerging regularly. Teaching students to adapt to neologisms, slang, and informal language, while maintaining cultural sensitivity, is essential for staying current and culturally competent.

The challenge of Vocabulary Acquisition and Expansion in Chinese language education is akin to a continuous journey, equipping learners with a rich and adaptable lexicon. As one Chinese proverb aptly puts it, ‘A journey of a thousand miles begins with a single step,‘ emphasizing the gradual yet rewarding process of expanding one’s vocabulary in this intricate and culturally profound language. The following quotation exemplifies the theme:

“As we guide students through the labyrinth of Chinese vocabulary, we must recognize that teaching specialized terminology and keeping up with the rapid lexical evolution is a dynamic endeavor. It’s akin to staying afloat in a river of words that constantly meanders and evolves. Our role as educators is to equip our students with the linguistic tools and cultural awareness, they need to navigate this ever-flowing river effectively.“ (Teacher 12).

Language varieties and dialects

Language varieties and dialects are another challenge of teaching the Chinese language which can be dissected into three significant sub-themes: Standard Mandarin vs. Regional Dialects, Accents and Pronunciation Variations, and Language Evolution and Modernization. Learners encounter the dichotomy between Standard Mandarin (Putonghua), the official language of China, and the extensive array of regional dialects found across the country. The task is to introduce students to Standard Mandarin, while simultaneously fostering an understanding of the unique linguistic features and pronunciation differences in regional dialects.

Accents and pronunciation variations add another layer of complexity to mastering the Chinese language. Educators must guide learners in recognizing and adapting to various regional accents, foreign accents when spoken by non-native speakers, and the importance of precise tone and intonation. Teachers also argued that the Chinese language is dynamic, continually evolving and modernizing. This sub-theme involves enlightening students about the ongoing evolution of the language, influenced by societal, technological, and cultural changes. The goal is to help learners adapt to these transformations in communication. The following quotation exemplify the this challenge:

“As we traverse the fascinating landscape of Chinese language varieties and dialects, we find ourselves guided by a profound understanding of linguistic diversity. Just as every dialect tells a unique story of culture and history, we are reminded of the timeless wisdom of Confucius: ‘Real knowledge is to know the extent of one’s ignorance.‘ In the multifaceted world of Chinese language, our quest as educators is to empower our students to embrace this diversity and embark on their own journey of understanding and effective communication.“(Teacher 10).

Sociolinguistic challenges

Politeness and address forms are one of the problems related to sociolinguistic challenges: This sub-theme delves into the intricate art of politeness and respect in Chinese communication. It involves teaching students the varying politeness levels through pronouns, titles, and kinship terms, offering insight into how language is used to convey respect and social hierarchy. Also, gendered language and the perpetuation of stereotypes are key sociolinguistic challenges. This sub-theme entails educating students on the use of gendered pronouns and addressing the important discussion of gender inclusivity. It also emphasizes the role of language in shaping and challenging gender roles and stereotypes, promoting the values of equality and sensitivity in communication. For instance, teacher 4 stated, as educators, our mission is to equip our students not only with linguistic proficiency but also with a deep understanding of the sociolinguistic intricacies that influence Chinese language and culture. By doing so, we empower them to navigate the complexities of politeness and gender-related language while promoting respect, inclusivity, and equality in their interactions.

Interference from the learners’ L1

Another psychological challenge in teaching Mandarin language is the interference from learners’ native languages. This issue often arises due to the fundamental linguistic differences between Mandarin and the learners’ mother tongue. For instance, learners whose native language is English may struggle with tonal distinctions, character-based writing, and grammar structures that differ significantly from English. Overcoming such interference is essential, and educators must develop strategies and exercises to help learners navigate and minimize the impact of their native language on their Mandarin learning process. As one teacher highlighted, “Recognizing the interference from learners’ native languages is the first step towards addressing it effectively.“ Conquering this challenge requires a deep understanding of language transfer issues and tailored approaches to mitigate them, making Mandarin more accessible and comprehensible to learners.

Age-related challenges

Teaching Mandarin to adults poses a unique set of challenges compared to teaching children or teenagers. The majority of Mandarin learners being adults introduces specific considerations that educators must address. Adult learners often have busy schedules, work commitments, and a range of life responsibilities that can limit their time and energy for language learning. Additionally, adults may come to the classroom with preconceived notions about language learning based on their prior experiences, which can influence their motivation and approach to Mandarin.

Engaging and effectively teaching adult learners in Mandarin requires instructors to design programs that are flexible, accommodating their schedules, and providing relevant, real-world language experiences. Furthermore, instructors must recognize and address any negative language learning experiences from the past and foster a supportive and motivating classroom environment. As one teacher pointed out, “Understanding the specific needs and motivations of adult learners is crucial to keeping them engaged and on track in their Mandarin studies.“ Thus, acknowledging the age-related challenges and tailoring instructional methods to meet the unique needs and expectations of adult learners is essential in successful Mandarin language education.

Educational problems and challenges

Educational challenges of teaching the mandarin language have been thematically categorized into seven main themes. Each is explained and exemplified as follows.

Curriculum, course design, resources and materials

The initial educational challenge in teaching Mandarin language lies in crafting a comprehensive curriculum with a well-designed course structure and ample resources. This challenge encompasses ensuring that the content remains relevant and up-to-date to cater to the evolving needs of learners, offering syllabus flexibility to accommodate diverse learning styles and goals, and ensuring the availability of authentic materials that reflect real-world language usage. Furthermore, selecting or adapting appropriate textbooks and integrating multimedia and supplementary resources are vital aspects of this challenge. As one Mandarin teacher aptly put it, “Designing a curriculum that keeps pace with the rapidly changing language landscape is a constant struggle.“ Another teacher emphasized the need for modernization, stating, “To engage students effectively, we must update our teaching materials to align with contemporary culture and technology.“ These facets together form the foundational hurdles faced in teaching Mandarin effectively.

Pedagogical approaches and strategies

The second educational challenge in teaching Mandarin language pertains to pedagogical approaches and strategies. This encompasses selecting appropriate teaching methodologies and approaches that cater to the unique characteristics of Mandarin, fostering effective classroom interaction and engagement to maintain students’ interest and motivation, and implementing differentiated instruction to accommodate diverse learning styles and individual needs. As one Mandarin teacher pointed out, “Choosing the right pedagogical approach is essential; Mandarin’s complex characters and tones require innovative teaching methods.“ Another teacher highlighted the importance of classroom interaction, stating, “Engaging students through interactive activities and communication is vital to mastering Mandarin’s nuances.“ Addressing these aspects constitutes a significant challenge in delivering Mandarin language education effectively.

Teacher professional knowledge

The third educational challenge in teaching Mandarin language revolves around teacher professional knowledge. This multifaceted challenge comprises three key sub-themes. Firstly, training and certification play a critical role in ensuring that educators are well-equipped to teach Mandarin effectively. Obtaining the necessary qualifications and continuous professional development is essential. As one teacher articulated, “Gaining the right certifications and training is crucial to provide quality Mandarin instruction.“ Secondly, pedagogical skills are vital for educators to employ effective teaching techniques and strategies, adapting them to the unique characteristics of Mandarin. A teacher emphasized this by stating, “Mandarin requires specific pedagogical skills due to its complexity, and teachers must possess these skills to teach it well.“ Thirdly, keeping abreast of language changes is essential as Mandarin evolves over time. Staying updated with language trends and incorporating them into teaching materials and methods is challenging but necessary. Additionally, teachers’ knowledge of assessment and material development is crucial to evaluate students’ progress and adapt teaching materials effectively. In the words of an educator, Assessment and material development expertise ensures that our students are learning effectively and staying engaged with the language.“ Addressing these aspects collectively forms the foundation of the challenge of teacher professional knowledge in Mandarin language education.

Cultural integration

The fourth educational challenge in teaching Mandarin language is cultural integration, which encompasses three key sub-themes. Firstly, cultural competence and sensitivity are essential for educators to navigate the cultural nuances and intricacies inherent to Mandarin. This involves understanding the historical, social, and cultural contexts, as one teacher stressed, “Being culturally competent is as important as linguistic competence in teaching Mandarin.“ Secondly, addressing cultural stereotypes and misconceptions is crucial to ensure that Mandarin education promotes accurate and respectful cross-cultural understanding. A teacher emphasized, “We must actively challenge and correct any stereotypes and misconceptions about Chinese culture that may arise in the classroom.“ Lastly, promoting cross-cultural communication in the classroom is vital. Encouraging students to engage in meaningful dialogue and interaction while respecting cultural differences is a challenge but is crucial for well-rounded language education. In the words of an educator, “Fostering cross-cultural communication enhances language learning and promotes cultural understanding.“ Together, these sub-themes encompass the challenge of cultural integration in Mandarin language education.in the classroom.

Student motivation and engagement

The fifth educational challenge in teaching Mandarin language pertains to student motivation and engagement, encompassing three key sub-themes. Firstly, the balance between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation is a critical challenge. It involves inspiring students to learn Mandarin both for their personal interest and for external reasons like academic requirements or career opportunities. As one teacher pointed out, “Finding the right mix of motivations is essential to keep students engaged and committed.“ Secondly, encouraging student participation and active learning is essential to maintain their interest in the language. Teachers must create an environment where students are actively involved in lessons and encouraged to take ownership of their learning. As an educator noted, “Active learning not only boosts motivation but also deepens language acquisition.“ Lastly, fostering peer interaction and collaborative learning is important. Creating opportunities for students to interact with their peers and collaborate in Mandarin enhances their engagement and language acquisition. One teacher emphasized, “Peer interaction allows students to practice in real-world contexts and builds a sense of community in the classroom.“ Together, these sub-themes encompass the challenge of student motivation and engagement in Mandarin language education.

Learner-related challenges

The last educational challenge in teaching Mandarin language is learner-related and includes several key aspects. Students may face a lack of motivation to learn Mandarin, which can stem from various factors. They may have different attitudes toward the Chinese language, influenced by cultural perceptions or preconceived notions. Additionally, students might prefer to learn more widely spoken languages like English, French, German, or Russian due to their global relevance and economic importance. Overcoming these learner-related challenges requires educators to find innovative ways to instill motivation, alter negative attitudes, and highlight the value and opportunities associated with learning Mandarin. As one teacher noted, “Inspiring students to appreciate the cultural richness and global significance of Mandarin is essential to kindle their motivation.“ Addressing these learner-related challenges is pivotal for a successful Mandarin language education program.